The long pentraxin PTX3 protein was originally described as able to be induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli in a variety of cell types.
COX-1 is constitutively expressed by most cell types whereas COX-2 is generally absent, or present at low levels, but can be induced by pro-inflammatory and mitogenic stimuli [17], [18].
Activation of resident microglia may be induced by pro-inflammatory molecules [ 21]), but also through direct interaction between Aβ and cell-surface HSPG [ 17].
TNFAIP6, increased in JIA patient granulocytes, can be induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-1 [ 42].
Studies have reported that PD-L1 expression can be induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFNγand TNFα in an antigen-independent manner [ 19- 22].
Interestingly, the expression of EpoR-s was shown to be induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines and its circulating levels were correlated with increased peripheral EPO resistance.
However, like IL-1α and β, expression of IL-33 can be induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli (Schmitz et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2008).
From our combined results, production of ceramide did not seem to be induced by pro-inflammatory state during IMI, but probably decrease.
Astrocytes could be induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli to promote the expression of BACE1, thus increasing the conversion of APP into the neurotoxic insoluble A β which could, in turn, induce astrocytes to produce more inflammation-like glial responses.
Different isoforms of NOS have been identified: eNOS (found in endothelial cells) and bNOS (found in brain and neuronal tissue) are constitutive and important in blood pressure regulation and memory; iNOS is an isoform that can be induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines and is important in host defense [ 87, 88].
The changes in insulin signaling may be induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines and adipokines secreted from both the adipose tissue and placenta of mothers with GDM [ 23, 36, 37], which have been previously implicated in insulin resistance among non-pregnant populations [ 38, 39].
