Because the genes affecting a trait are unknown, this complex function must be approximated by, for example, a regression of phenotype on marker genotypes.
However, if a certain defect density is present, the conductor can be approximated by virtual parts (for example, squares for a two-dimensional conductor), each with a volume corresponding to the inverse of the defect density and with one defect residing in it (Fig. 4a).
31 Overall, it seems reasonable to suggest that the uncertainty in clearance predictions falls in the order of a factor three for high-performance methods (this can, for example, be approximated by a lognormal distribution with 95% chance of falling within threefold from the predicted point estimate).
As indicated in [13] that an image can be approximated by a continuous function, for example, by convolving it with a Gaussian kernel.
However, they can be approximated using abundant expression datasets, for example utilizing normalized variation among microarray assays between replicates of populations [ 42, 43].
The gradient term ∇ a E, for example, can then be approximated using the central difference approximation as ∇ aE ≈ E ( Φ a, b, h, θ ) − E ( Φ a − ϵ, b, h, θ ) 2 ϵ. (16).
A scalar function whose singular points are all non-degenerate is called a Morse function, and it is known that the space of Morse functions is dense in the space of all functions: any given function can be approximated arbitrarily well by a Morse function (for example, see [8]).
For example, the fraction can be approximated as:.
The oceans and the atmosphere, for example, have a layered structure, and the dynamics within each layer can be approximated by a two-dimensional model.
