PAR-2 is also known to be activated by various pathogenic organisms with protease activity such as house dust mites, cockroaches, certain bacteria, or parasites [ 12, 32].
CREB can be activated by various kinases in response to electrical activity, neurotransmitters, hormones, and neurotrophins, thus promoting the expression of many genes that contain cAMP response elements (Finkbeiner et al., 1997; Hardingham & Bading, 1998).
Connective tissue growth factor is a common mediator of tissue fibrosis and can be activated by various stimulations, such as mechanical stretch, inflammation, hyperoxidative stress, enhanced activation of the renin angiotensin system, etc.
Hepatic STAT3 can be activated by various cytokines, growth factors, hormones, and hepatitis viral proteins11.
The mitochondrial-dependent pathway can be activated by various stress inducers such as DNA damage, growth factor withdrawal, and oxidative stress28,29.
However, this ratio may be activated by various types of defects and in a completely independent manner.
The transcription factor NF-κB is an example of distinct redox-sensitive activation and DNA binding [57]; it is activated by various physiological stimuli known to produce ROS; on the contrary, to permit DNA binding, similar to Fos, Jun, and Nrf2, cysteine residue within DNA binding domain must be reduced.
The secretion of IL-1β requires a unique protease, caspase-1, which is activated by various protein platforms called inflammasomes.
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), also known as the extracellular signal regulated protein kinase (ERK), is a member of a family of serine/threonine kinases which are activated by various growth factors.
