We will therefore need to assume that selection into the programme occurs on the basis of observable characteristics only.
However, some of these general problems are considered to be more present in certain student groups distinguished on the basis of observable characteristics.
In Sweden, the municipalities involved in the pilot scheme were decided by a central authority on the basis of observable characteristics.
Since employers cannot determine job candidates' actual productivity levels, they screen potential employees on the basis of observable characteristics such as educational attainment, grades, gender, age, work experience, unemployment duration or other personal characteristics.
CA has been widely used in subgrouping on the basis of observable characteristics, ranging from types of gut bacteria at the cellular level [25] to the human level, where it is proving useful in the definition, diagnosis, and treatment of complex conditions, such as back pain [26,27] and fibromyalgia [28].
A limitation of such an analysis, however, is due to its ability to correct bias only on the basis of observable characteristics which determine self-selection.
PSM uses a statistical model to calculate propensity of invasion on the basis of the set of observable characteristics.
Related to this is the balance of observable characteristics between treated and matched control observations.
X is a matrix of observable characteristics of nodes, w x (G, X) interacts network statistics with exogenous characteristics of nodes, and Z and (bar {boldsymbol {X}}) are network-level observable characteristics.
Propensity score is the conditional probability of being employed in a changing firm given a set of observable characteristics.
Financial variables are thus not included in the set of observable characteristics that might correlate with the high-growth indicators.
