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Most of the available direct push sensor systems are largely based on empirical testing and consecutively evaluated under field conditions.
The model is based on the Two-Ray Ground model with shadowing, where the parameters are set based on empirical testing of 802.11p radio modules [29].
We found that the use of the directly combined axial scans S c = S as the initial solution to provide sufficiently fast convergence (approximately 15 iterations based on empirical testing with human retinal data sets acquired in-vivo).
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The values or range of values that generally yield good performance based on empirical test are also given in Table 2.
The challenge is that the methods used in practice are based on empirical tests and real relationships and drivers are difficult to see in this complex process and so the trade-off decision is challenging and uncertain.
Although the critical threshold for determining the existence of a QTN can be based on empirical permutation tests, the LR2 may asymptotically follow a χ2 distribution with two degrees of freedom, so that the threshold can be obtained from the χ2 distribution table.
The final evaluation process was further revised through face and content validity testing, and also 'usability' based on empirical application (pilot test).
These two issues were always investigated based on empirical approaches or testing methods.
P-values were calculated based on empirical Bayes t-test [ 20].
The web crippling design guides are based on empirical adjustments of available test data.
Current thinking defines validity less as a property of the test but rather as an appraisal of the meaning of the test score based on empirical evidence, dependent not only on the test's characteristics, but also on its respondents' characteristics and on the evaluative context [ 19].
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