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Certain backward industries in China would very much like to have more protection from competition.
The ex-communist east of the European Union has backward industries, a dire demographic outlook and, for the most part, out-of-date universities.
China still has vast reserves of cheap labor in inland areas and many backward industries that can grow swiftly as they copy Western and Japanese methods.
The Chinese government has encouraged FDI in order to prop up backward industries (Sharma and Gani 2004).
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Despite the woes facing Japan's backward domestic industries, such as construction, distribution and finance, its world-beating companies, the ones that have always faced international competition, have mostly gone from strength to strength since the collapse of the Japanese bubble in 1990.
A landmark decision to let foreign supermarkets into a backward food industry still stands in theory, but fluid and onerous fine print means Walmart, Tesco and others are not investing yet.If deep reform is off the agenda, the government can still try the old approach of cranking the bureaucratic machine harder.
"In some ways it's a backward-looking industry," he said.
One of privatisation's attractions was the chance to import dynamic private management and marketing talent into a hidebound, backward-looking industry.
California, which has the ninth-largest economy in the world, has led the way on this push to make a traditionally backward-looking industry anticipate and respond to the business liability presented by a changing climate.
Most of the petrochemical industry's physical capital is imported, and the industry does not have strong backward linkages to manufacturing industries.
The head of the oil and gas lobby in Washington contends that the president has it backward — that the industry subsidizes the government, through billions of dollars in taxes and royalties, not the other way around.
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