Positive-reinforcement procedures offer an alternative to aversive-control techniques typically used in equine training and may provide for better equine welfare and horse human interaction.
Within each group, each harnessed bee was fed 20 µl (4 times 5 µl; i.e. one third of their full crop load) [32] of the aversive (or control) substance assigned to its group.
We propose that sensitivity to aversive stimuli may control defensive behavior as sensitivity to sucrose controls foraging behavior.
Oxford Oxford University Presss; 1982] has described two motivational systems, the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioural Activation System (BAS), that control aversive and appetitive behaviour, respectively.
However, with the exception of voice control, aversive techniques remained relatively unacceptable after the course though significant changes in perceptions were observed towards neutral (Table 2).
After the course, statistically significant increases were found in the acceptability of aversive techniques (voice control and hand-over-mouth), all pharmacological techniques, and modeling.
For example, from the Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) perspective, attempts to control aversive experiences are, in the best case, an unproductive endeavour that can hinder the pursuit of valued experiences or, in the worst case, an additional source of distress [ 34].
It has been reported that amygdala and hippocampus is one of critical regions for controlling aversive stress directly [ 10].
Animal studies, for example, have shown that mGluR7 ablation can cause deficits in fear response [ 30], and mGluR7 facilitates extinction of aversive memories and controls amygdala plasticity [ 29].
Enhanced PINV amplitudes have been found in a number of studies, reflecting a lack of control over aversive events, an unexpected change in controllability [ 11, 12] and representing contingency reappraisal [ 13].
Bromberg-Martin, E. S., Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, O. Dopamine in motivational control: rewarding, aversive, and alerting.
