In terms of importance and effectiveness of online instruction in academic achievements, motivation and attitudes of students, this study investigates current uses of instructional design (ID) models in designing and developing online instruction for higher education.
The conceptualization of attitude in this study is presented schematically in Figure 1. Figure 1 The conceptualization of attitude in this study (adapted from Murray et al., 2012).
Since some demographic or experiential variables, as we discussed earlier, may affect test takers' attitude, the results of this study may not be validly extrapolated to other groups of test takers such as staff in business.
Drawing on the theoretical foundation of belief and attitude change, this study examines the construct of perceived knowledge update (i.e., the difference between perceived post-training knowledge and perceived pre-training knowledge) and its antecedents and consequences.
The questionnaire aimed to elicit reasons for this attitude of our study participants.
Although most of the studies reported more than one effect size, for example, Kong (2007) and Guven (2012), who also reported on students' change of attitude toward computers, this study focused only on student achievement, thus reporting one effect size per study.
Furthermore, we found that the Cronbach's alpha of the certain attitude subscale was higher than that of the reflective attitude subscale in this study.
As performing a large survey of public attitudes was beyond the scope of this study, we will consider here the attitudes of the policy makers as reflecting (to a certain extent) those of the public at large.
Details on FP subject contents, step by step FP method provision process, and student attitude were beyond the scope of this study.
Since a validated tool for measuring attitudes towards GCC did not exist at the time of this study, student attitudes were measured using questions from national opinion polls (Borick and Rabe [2012]; Hamilton and Keim [2009]; Hamilton [2011]; Leiserowitz et al. [2012]; Nisbet and Myers [2007]).
