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Classical PTPs dephosphorylate tyrosine phosphorylation to attenuate the function of many receptor tyrosine kinases (Andersen et al., 2001; Andersen et al., 2004).
Decreases of intracellular ATP levels attenuate the function of the HSP90 molecular chaperone; DHA treatment determines a reduction of ATP and so the disruption of the HSP90 function.
Another study revealed that the inhibition of MMP-2 could phenocopy the anti-angiogenesis and anti-invasion effects of miR-29b, whereas, the introduction of MMP-2 could attenuate the function of miR-29b in HCC cells [[ 74]].
Information is required on expression and activity of the growth factors such as IGF-I and myostatin, as well as on the expression levels of their receptors (IGF-IR and activin receptors), smad proteins and the inhibitory binding proteins (e.g., IGFBP-4, follistatin, myostatin propetide), which may enhance or attenuate the function of these growth factors.
These findings have contributed to the rationale for the development of targeted therapies that delete B cells [ 60] or that attenuate the function of secreted and membrane associated factors that contribute to B cell accumulation and survival at sites of disease [ 61].
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Talebizadeh et al. [63] hypothesized that the disease-associated human isoforms could play a regulatory role by attenuating the function of the full-length isoform.
Efforts focused at differentiating or attenuating the function of MDSCs have been promising, leading to improved immune response against the tumor and a better prognosis for the patient [2].
Such molecules, including truncated forms of neurexin I and neuroligin (i.e. mimicking autism variants, missing EF metal binding motifs), could serve regulatory roles by attenuating the function of full-length isoforms or behave as soluble signalling molecules [63], [70].
The CD4+CD25− T-cell-derivedGITR+ cells (GITR+ non-Treg) are also known to activate self-reactive T cells by attenuating the function of Tregs, indicating that they may harm the living cells by eliciting autoimmunity.
Recently, an anchoring protein called Parc, or p53-associated parkin-like cytoplasmic protein [ 36], was found to bind p53 at the nuclear localization domains of p53 and attenuates the function of p53.
For example, 14-3-3β 14-3-3β 14-3-3βnd TSC2 to form a ternary complex and ultimately attenuates the function of the TSC bindsanging ito conformaTSC1 (ShumwandeTSC2, 2003).
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