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First, the study design was a retrospective cross-sectional analysis, for which it is usually difficult to ascertain the temporal sequence of exposure and outcome.
However, cross-sectional studies cannot determine causality because in most cases it is impossible to ascertain the temporal sequence between the events studied.
However, detection of such associations is far from establishing causality since such studies are unable to ascertain the temporal sequence of exposure and outcome (LaKind et al., 2008b, 2012).
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All four studies defined exposure as an alcohol use disorder noted in medical records in a way that allowed ascertaining the temporal sequence between exposure and outcome.
The first, is a 'space time' analysis, where crime scientists conduct routine spatial hot spot analysis and then ascertain the temporal patterns within each of the hot spots.
Due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, we could not ascertain the temporal relationship between drug use and virologic suppression.
In this study, we combined GIFM with loss-of-function analysis to ascertain the temporal specification of GABAergic cortical interneurons derived from the Nkx6-2 lineage.
This cross-sectional analysis does not allow us to ascertain the temporal relationship between mobility and cognition in relation to HRQoL and wellbeing.
Since we could not ascertain the HIV status of each widow at the time of her husband's death, it was impossible to determine the temporal sequence between infection and inheritance.
Due to the cross-sectional nature of the survey and the lack of detailed information about marital status of the parents, the temporal sequence between family structure and substance use cannot be ascertained.
The temporal sequence of events subsequent to hormone binding and cAMP production are identical, but occur more rapidly.
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