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DSM-5, like DSM-IV, allows some scope for clinical judgment as to causality.
While this is typical of in situ studies, where researchers must be willing to work around the primary needs of the school, it does limit our ability to make full conclusions as to causality.
Overall the cross-sectional design prevented any inference as to causality.
Hence, while trends in prevalence estimates and goal attainment rates can be inferred from the data, conclusions as to causality of these temporal relationships are not possible.
The current study is a cross-sectional observational study; therefore while serum endostatin concentrations were raised in patients with intermittent claudication we cannot draw conclusions as to causality.
For cancer outcomes, the report concluded that 'the evidence was inconsistent, inconclusive as to causality, and insufficient to inform nutritional requirements' [ 10].
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Concerning the length of ETS-related articles, we can draw no conclusions as to the causality of the observed increases in average article length, whether these increases reflect advances in research productivity or changes in journals' policies.
First, this cross-sectional study does not permit conclusions as to the causality of the associations.
However, uncertainty remains as to direct causality and the mechanisms underpinning relationships between kidney function and CVD [ 9, 10].
Women with PFPS have been found to be weaker in hip abduction and external rotation compared to healthy controls, although a recent systematic review raises the question as to the causality of the relationship [ 31, 32].
Although the present study has a cross-sectional design, preventing us from making any conclusions as to the causality of ω-3 FA intake and depression, it seemed unlikely that depression would change the intake of ω-3 FA.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com