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In light of these findings, important research questions arise: prospective assessment of biological age in HIV-infected and HIV-seronegative individuals is needed to ascertain whether the accelerated ageing trajectory develops as soon as HIV infection is acquired.
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For the most part, our recommendations arise from prospective and retrospective observational studies and international consensus.
The use of human albumin in the setting of liver cirrhosis is supported by evidence arising from prospective randomized trials and meta-analyses.
In view of the ethical issues arising in prospective observational studies that would evaluate preventive interventions, the implications of the very frameworks for evidence and proof for science and policy action need to be discussed; this cannot be resolved by science alone; they require a broad debate on the conditions of proof requested for action on a societal level.
Selection bias may arise due to prospective recruitment of families after randomization of NICU sites, and differences in the nature and process of obtaining informed consent.
The data arise from a prospective cohort study in which the primary outcome, CD4 cell count, is assessed every 6 months for three years (i.e. 6 measures of CD4 count across time for each subject) and heavy alcohol consumption, the main independent variable, is assessed only at baseline.
We present and analyse data arising from a prospective study of 5 households in rural Kenya, followed through 3 consecutive days.
Academic medical centers (AMCs) are presently facing enormous challenges arising from a prospective decline in government funding for research and education, shifting payment models emphasizing efficiency and value, and increasing competition.
An opportunity to evaluate this issue arises with a prospective Canadian study called the National Population Health Survey (NPHS).
The registration and approval of novel medicines have traditionally been based on evidence arising from large prospective trials.
In view of the current disappointing survival data arising from large prospective placebo-controlled clinical trials, the latter evidence is of vital importance.
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