Under climate change, the sustainability of diverse protected area ecosystems is in question.
Grazing of cattle is a growing activity, but if management forms do not guarantee the functions and services of ecosystems within the protected area, ecosystems will be severely altered.
The cattle lived in mixed cattle small ruminant livestock systems in an area where a PPR outbreak had occurred in 2008, and the wildlife populations lived in protected-area ecosystems across a broader geographic area.
"Startup ecosystems need a significant minimum scale to operate effectively and the London area ecosystem is now only approaching critical mass while other hubs are a long way off and unlikely to become sustainable in the short to medium term".
The dynamics of plantation ecology and management necessarily differ by landscape, geographic area, ecosystem type, etc.
We examined the number of rare plant species present in preserves based on the site area, ecosystem type and management practices using the EEL database maintained by the county and a database of plant species inventories collected by the Institute for Regional Conservation.
Here, we demonstrate different compositional, structural and functional indicators/indices related to fragmentation, representativeness of protected area, ecosystem sensitivity, and landscape connectivity for the development of a Regional Index of Ecological Integrity (RIEI).
A set of recommendations has been developed to aid MPA network design and implementation, which include MPA size and spacing, risk spreading, protection of critical areas, connectivity, ecosystem function, and ecosystem-based management (McLeod and others 2008b).
Protected areas enable ecosystems to maintain their ecological integrity, thereby safeguarding many important ecological assets and services provided by ecosystems.
