Exact(4)
The definition (Equation 6) is called the zero-order approximation because it is actually a reformulated precise definition (Equation 5).
However, to the best of our knowledge, the derivatives are currently estimated numerically by finite difference approximation because it is very difficult to obtain the analytical derivatives of the object function for an implicit optimization problem.
In the formulation of the (scaled) reduced model used above, the size of the beta-cell population was assumed to be constant as an approximation, because it is slowly varying.
This estimate is the best available, though it likely represents a conservative approximation because it is based on basal metabolic rates and allometric relationships; furthermore, among other confounds, these whales in Wilhelmina are theoretically eating as much as possible to prepare for winter.
Similar(4)
I say approximation because it's not really outdoors, although its glass facade opens almost entirely, so that it somehow manages an outdoor feel, enhanced by picnic-style tables.
Proof 2. Consider ϕi+1 is the best possible sparse approximation with K-sparse (because it is formed by retaining the K largest entries in ϕ t i and setting others to zero) and ϕ i is also K-sparse.
In any case, neglecting all off-diagonal elements of Z is in general less important for the knowledge of the expected GICs than the uncertainties produced by the different approximations and assumptions adopted because it is not always possible to get precise values for all the circuit elements.
RTT (Round Trip Time) is often used as an approximation of the delay, but because it is a sum of the forward and reverse delays, the actual one-way delay cannot be estimated accurately from RTT.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com