The accumulated AGEs can interact with RAGE which initiates multiple signaling cascades and subsequently activates a regulatory protein for inflammatory and immune responses, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) [5].
The innate immune system relies on several pattern recognition receptors that detect specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns, including non-self nucleic acid such as positive and negative sense single-stranded RNA, double-stranded RNA and DNA, and CpG DNA, and subsequently activates an antiviral response characterized by induction of IFNs [79]– [82].
The Gα and Gβγ subunits subsequently activate a variety of signaling pathways that can have different effects depending on the cell type.
Second messengers subsequently activate a downstream signal cascade that phosphorylates transcription factors that regulate the expression of a set of genes or proteins involved in stress adaptation [183].
The TLR-4 complex can detect lipopolysaccharides on gram-negative bacteria and subsequently activate the innate immune system.
Following engagement of TCR, the small GTPases Ras and Rac are activated, and subsequently activate the MAPK signalling cascade.
Collectively, these data indicate that peach stone formation and Arabidopsis dehiscence appear to be controlled by a highly conserved pathway of positive and negative regulatory transcription factors that first establish tissue identity and then, subsequently, activates a common pathway in order to promote secondary wall formation and lignification.
In addition to MyD88 pathway, stimulation of TLR4 also activates MyD88 independent TIR-domain containing adapter-inducing interferon- β (TRIF) pathway where TRIF links to interferon regulatory factor-3 (IRF3) which induces interferon- β secretion, and this cytokine subsequently activates a series of genes that regulate host protection [ 37, 57].
The DNA-binding domain senses DNA breaks and subsequently activates PARP-1 activity [ 19].
The amount of active MMP is measured directly by the incubation of the captured MMP with modified pro-urokinase (Ukcol, Amersham Biosciences), and subsequently activated Ukcol is quantified by a chromogenic substrate S-24444, Amersham Biosciences).
