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On these grounds, the argument can be dismissed as an instance of the fallacy ad hominem.
If not, we have an instance of the fallacy of equivocation.
The most satisfactory way, is to say that the imagined occurrence of double introduction is an instance of the fallacy of misplaced concreteness.
See Read, "How is Material Supposition Possible?" in Medieval Philosophy and Theology 8 (1999): 18 and S 7.3.4: 522, where Buridan considers 'Homo est species' as an instance of the fallacy of equivocation.
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By analogy, using the success of a scientific theory as an indicator of its approximate truth (assuming a low rate of false positives cases in which theories far from the truth are nonetheless successful) is arguably, likewise, an instance of the base rate fallacy.
Since model 2 does not control for individual characteristics, so the above results cannot be regarded as firm evidence of regional and industrial effects in that they can as well be a reflection of a statistical artifact due to an instance of ecological fallacy.
In just the way that some authors suggest that the miracle argument is an instance of fallacious reasoning the base rate fallacy (see section 2.1)—some suggest that the pessimistic induction is likewise flawed (Lewis 2001, Lange 2002, Magnus & Callender 2004).
Citing instances in which animals and humans responded similarly to a perturbation and concluding that animals are therefore useful in predicting outcomes from drugs or diseases is an example of the fallacy of insufficient statistics, the proof by example fallacy, or the base rate fallacy.
In this case, it can be classified as an instance of a variant of the fallacy "affirming the consequent," albeit a normative variant which does not allow one to infer that "X is desirable" from the premises that "If X then Y" and "Y is desirable".
In contrast, threats have no clear role in critical inquiry, where they would ordinarily be classed as instances of the fallacy ad bacculum.
Taken at face value, abductive arguments appear to be instances of the fallacy "affirming the consequent," and might on these grounds be dismissed, though they play a central role in medical, scientific and legal reasoning (see Walton 2004).
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