Other conceptual frameworks in the field of environmental psychology include the norm-activation model (NAM) (by [77,78]), which focuses on moral values and personal norms to explain (altruistic) behaviour, and the value-belief-norm (VBN) theory (by [83,84]) to explain commitments to protect the environment.
The multi-stakeholder approach adopted by this study, despite its few drawbacks, was considered appropriate for the Ghanaian social context, where social norms encourage altruistic communalism.
For boards, like individuals and organisations as a whole, we argue that the neglect of trust in favour of a reliance on 'checking' or 'confidence' built through risk management systems can potentially have the effect of eroding the traditional social norms and altruistic behaviours which characterise long standing working relationships.
As a more realistic but less tractable alternative, H. Margolis argues in favor of a more dynamic and complex model, called 'neither selfish nor exploited' [33], which proposes a dual utility model which takes into account the history of one's actions, the current overall behavior, the effect of altruistic action, and the developed norms in a society.
So we propose to incorporate in a simple utility function the effect of the external manifestation of altruistic behavior that is a statistical norm as termed in [33] or simply 'what others do' [28].
We also investigate the impact of various punishment schemes on the social welfare as well as how should the optimal social norms be designed if altruistic and malicious peers are active in the network.
The trade-off between individual and collective benefit has often been conceptualized within psychological models of altruistic behavior such as Schwartz's norm-activation model (NAM) (Schwartz, [1977]; Schwartz and Howard, [1980]).
The report behind "The Urge to Punish Cheats" tries to show that the desire to punish behavior that violates social norms is not only normal, but altruistic, because it is not selfish: there is a cost to society when it must uphold its standards.
The idea of giving up cultural norms is particularly at odds with the altruistic concept of family-based collectivism, which places the interests and needs of the family before those of the individual and is a core value for many racial minority groups [ 46].
But what has changed are students' motivations for attending -- they are more likely than in the past to enroll as a way to improve job prospects, rather than out of the altruistic love of learning (according to the Higher Education Research Institute's annual Freshman norms survey).
Theories of economic incentives are largely based on a hypothesis of self-interest, while theories on public service motivation and intra-occupational norms - including medical ethics - would predict more altruistic preferences among GPs.
