The research, published today in BMJ Global Health, calculated the actual production costs of the drugs and allowed for some profit.
Ms. Whitney is also drawing scrutiny from Washington, where a Congressional panel will meet on Wednesday to examine the turmoil in the muni bond market, including whether Ms. Whitney's call has fed the volatility and allowed some investors to profit unfairly.
Others appear to be more worried about the leaks of the data into the market before the official release, which allows some traders to profit on the advance knowledge.
Ikea has been accused of avoiding taxes in other ways too; the company's finances are set up in such a way that allows some of its profits to go to a charity, minimizing Ikea's tax bill and greatly benefitting the furniture chain's founder and his family, according to a 2006 investigation by The Economist.
Finally, Ireland's treaties with European nations allowed some of Apple's profits to travel virtually tax-free through the Netherlands and made the profits essentially invisible to tax authorities.
This allows some corporations to mark profits without selling much or hiring anyone.
Others stressed the need to eradicate the "too big to fail" dogma, which led to severe market distortions and allowed some banks to generate profits from the state subsidies they received.
Last year, Goldman Sachs and Deutsche Bank started offering bets on the level of unemployment, allowing some traders, in effect, to profit from others' joblessness.Leighton Vaughan Williams, a betting expert at Britain's Nottingham Trent University, recalls that such arguments were used against London sports-betting firms that offered odds on the outcome of the O.J. Simpson trial in 1995.
During the first phase, when allowances were free, companies received 7percentt more credits than they needed, allowing some to generate significant windfall profits, according to Sandbag, a London-based group that monitors emissions trading.
C1 Firm Founders Settle The founders of the firm Pilgrim Baxter & Associates agreed to each pay $80 million in a settlement that resolves a complaint that they improperly profited by allowing some investors to trade rapidly in and out of the company's mutual funds.
