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This retributive justification (general justifying aim) of punishment explains why mental competence and mens rea are standard legal pre-conditions of criminal guilt and liability to punishment.
Punishment is the response to an act of a bad will and so it can be regarded as retributivist but it also has a properly preventive element, as well as a reformatory character (since "the aim of punishment is to make the offender good" (p. 206).
It might of course turn out that answers to all these questions will flow from a single theoretical foundation for instance from a unitary consequentialist principle specifying the good that punishment should achieve, or from some version of the retributivist principle that the sole proper aim of punishment is to impose on the guilty the punitive burdens they deserve.
Similar(57)
But those are also the aims of punishment as a species of secular penance, as sketched above.
The forward and backward-looking aims of punishment apply not only to the particular offence in question, but also to the kind of conduct of which this offence is an example.
With an aim of reducing punishments that keep students out of the classroom, the department's new disciplinary code also guides teachers to intervene quickly with misbehaving students and to try counseling before moving to punishment.
First, what is the 'general justifying aim' of a system of punishment: what justifies the creation and maintenance of such a system what good can it achieve, what duty can it fulfil, what moral demand can it satisfy?
First, philosophers urged that reformation of convicted offenders (especially in its more medically inspired modes, vividly depicted in fictionalized form in Anthony Burgess's Clockwork Orange[1962]), is not the aim, or even a subsidiary aim among several, of the practice of punishment.
To these were added skepticism over the deterrent effects of punishment (whether special, aimed at the offender, or general, aimed at the public) and as an effective goal to pursue in punishment.
That left, apparently, only two possible rational aims to pursue in the practice of punishment under law: Social defense through incarceration, and retributivism.
Such preludes are a last resort before the infliction of punishment and are aimed at the inevitable failures among the citizens.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com