The resulting patterns of variation are located along the elevational gradients on both sides of the Andes, with additional variation located along a latitudinal gradient (Fig. S2).
Similarly, the pattern of variation in the bats on the west side of the Andes was most apparent along a latitudinal axis, with additional differentiation between the lowlands and mid-elevations.
We argue that because the southern limit of the A. schaueriana distribution presents temperatures within the range of variation of A. germinans [ 4] and because this climatic factor is regarded as a major driver that influences mangrove latitudinal limits [ 3], additional major traits must influence the distributions of these species in South America.
Some widespread latitudinal clines in Drosophila also provide an additional advantage for studies of thermal coadaptation: there is a relatively well-known historical record following the invasion of a new geographical region (e.g. [ 18, 19]).
Principal component (PC) 1 explained 64% of the variation and loaded most heavily on size (area, perimeter, latitudinal range) and permeability (shape); PC2 explained an additional 19% of the variation and loaded most heavily on position (distance from equator) and permeability (fragmentation; Additional file 3).
The 100 Appalachian samples from 47 populations covering the entire latitudinal distribution of D. monticola represented 18 unique cox1 haplotypes (Additional File 1).
Besides, the analysis of results of model calculations of the ionospheric reaction on the action of the additional zonal electric field in the vicinity of the epicentre mid-latitudinal and near-equatorial earthquakes convincingly testifies in favour of this hypothesis (Namgaladze et al., 2007, 2009; Klimenko and Klimenko, 2008; Zolotov et al., 2008).
Additional important evidence regarding paleoclimate is provided by the nature of Triassic fossils and their latitudinal distribution.
Further work is needed to combine direct estimates of sequence diversity for these and additional genes with estimates of parasite load and infection status in additional populations and species across a latitudinal gradient.
To examine morph-specific latitudinal changes in the length of the abdomen, adults were sampled from 12 local populations (see Additional file 1 Table S1).
