As age and chronic disease can impair muscular adaptations to exercise, knowledge of the pathways that regulate adaptive reprogramming in muscle will be invaluable for designing strategies to improve muscle function in specific clinical populations.
In addition, studying molecular adaptions to exercise in the diabetic heart advocates the use of animal models where the severity and the progression of diabetes may vary, which may influence the tolerance and the adaptive response to acute and chronic exercise.
RBE was more pronounced in adult males than in boys and elderly males, suggesting that the muscles of boys and elderly males are less adaptive to exercise-induced muscle damage than those of adult males.
By activating adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase (AMPK), RONS play a critical role in the regulation of muscle metabolism but also in the adaptive responses to exercise training.
Presently, a great body of evidence suggests that RONS have several roles in exercise beyond the detrimental damaging effects; indeed, they participate in signaling to regulate muscle function and in initiating adaptive responses to exercise [4, 7, 8].
Angiogenesis is the process of formation of new blood vessels; it is generally a rare occurrence in the adult, although it is a common adaptive response to exercise training in skeletal muscle.
Unexpectedly, trained Myog-deleted mice exhibited a superior adaptive response to exercise training under similar conditions.
Fast- to slow-twitch fiber-type transition and increased oxidative capacity are well-documented, long-term adaptive responses to exercise training [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43].
Nevertheless, these animals also showed a positive adaptive response to exercise while much less consistent response was seen in the mature rats subjected to the same exercise regimen (Figure 5).
Moreover, there are most likely transient time-dependent changes during the cardiac adaptive responses to exercise.
Therefore, the horse serves as a valuable model to understand the physiology and molecular mechanisms of adaptive responses to exercise.
