CD is a matter of significant public health and societal concern because of strong associations with adverse scholastic and work performance, disrupted peer and family relationships, excessive risk-taking behaviours which often result in personal injury, loss of property, alcohol, nicotine and substance abuse, accident proneness and development of later antisocial personality disorder [ 14, 15].
Indirect benefit to the broader population is expected by improving strategies to engage and treat individuals with substance abuse concerns, refinement of educational materials, and development of best practice protocols that may be generalised to a range of other settings.
There is still considerable room for improvement in MSs' knowledge, particularly in how STI/HIV transmission occurs and knowledge of antibiotic abuse and the development of drug resistance; perhaps a longer training program would have a greater impact.
We hope this review will accomplish at least two objectives: 1) highlight the seemingly ubiquitous presence of basal sex differences in nearly every system implicated in addiction, and 2) reveal the shocking lack of knowledge of how these differences contribute to divergent (or similar) responses to drugs of abuse and the development of addiction in males and females.
There is an emerging association between ketamine abuse and the development of urological symptoms including dysuria, frequency and urgency, which have a neurological component.
Since it was first reported in 2007 [ 1], there has been an emerging association between ketamine abuse and the development of severe uro/neurological symptoms including dysuria, frequency and urgency in association with a thickened, contracted bladder (reviewed [ 2]).
However, even when studies control for demographic differences, family discord, and parental pathology, the specific relationship between childhood abuse and the development of substance use disorders holds true.
For example, many authorities believe there is a link between childhood sexual abuse and the development of borderline personality disorder or between harsh, inconsistent punishment in childhood and the development of antisocial personality disorder.
The CPP paradigm is designed to investigate the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse and the development of maladaptive behaviors, such as conditioned response to drug-associated stimuli, after repeated drug exposure.
■ Does a relationship exist between parents' own past experiences of abuse and the development of trauma symptoms in their children?
