Similarly to our observations, C57 mice are often reported to be resistant to the influence of early life manipulations on several aspects of adult behavior, including cognitive abilities, depression-related and schizophrenia-related behaviors [34], [36] [38].
They are associated with a triad of impairment in cognitive ability, depression and physical health.
Indicators of outcome quality included pain intensity and frequency of pain, functional ability, depression, quality of life and health related behavior.
These results were expected because school difficulty reflects a mental ability, depression affects psychomotor and cognitive functions [ 22– 25], while sustained violence favors mental disorders and alters cognitive development [ 3, 15– 17, 20, 21].
These may favor SA because school difficulty reflects somewhat a mental/cognitive ability; depression affects physical and mental performances [ 22– 25]; and sustained violence favors substance use, depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and altered cognitive development [ 3, 15– 17, 20, 21].
Measures of pain, quality of life, functional ability, depression, past treatments and health service use were obtained via interviews and self-report questionnaires and thus have limitations re recall accuracy and response bias.
17 Following earlier research, we constructed a frailty index using 39 variables that included objective, subjective, and proxy reports of cognitive functioning, disability, auditory and visual ability, depression, heart rhythm, and numerous chronic diseases (details available on request).
These 39 indicators include self-reported health status, cognitive functioning, disabilities in activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental ADL, auditory and visual ability, depression, heart rhythm, chronic conditions (e.g., stroke, diabetes, heart diseases, lung diseases, etc)., and serious illness measured by being hospitalized or bedridden.
In model 2, current medical history related to falls (stroke, osteoporosis, joint disease/neuralgia, injury/fracture, mental illness, impaired vision, and impaired hearing), physical ability, depression, walking in minutes/day, and frequency of outings were added to model 1 to adjust for sociodemographics.
In the fully adjusted model 3, older age, male gender, low educational status, having current medical history, low physical ability, depression, less than 30-minute walking time, having locations difficult for walking close to home, and living in the local government were each associated with the incidence of falls.
