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Measurement of cotinine, a biomarker of nicotine, has been shown to be a valid summary measure of the dose received from ETS as well as from active smoking [ 8– 10].
These processes are often time consuming and a number of shortcuts have been developed to enable clinicians to obtain up-to-date valid summaries of the clinical evidence.
The reason is that a (linearly averaged) group mean may not be a valid statistical summary of group data when the relationship between probability values and subjective values is non-linear.
Analyses of this database have revealed risks in a range of clinical areas, 9 10 but what has been lacking are high-level, valid summary metrics to allow surveillance of harm across a whole healthcare system in a way that allows, for example: comparison between hospitals; monitoring of time trends and a baseline for assessing and evaluating interventions.
If there was at least one valid daily summary of any gaseous or particulate pollutant in a week, a weekly summary for that pollutant was calculated by averaging the daily summaries in that week.
Appendix A: Summary of Key Relationships.
Self-rated oral health is a valid and useful summary indicator of overall oral health status and quality of life.
23 The meta-analysis presented here provides a valid and up to date summary of the relevant literature, including a recently published randomised controlled trial of 339 patients with a confirmed diagnosis of uncomplicated appendicitis.
Self-rated oral health is a valid and useful summary indicator of overall oral health status used in epidemiologic studies [ 3, 4].
Self-rated oral health is assessed frequently in epidemiologic studies, including national health surveys, and is a valid and useful summary indicator of overall oral health status [ 3, 4].
However, it is just not valid to read a brief summary of research at this level and decide that you don't "agree" with it.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com