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Correlations between behavioral and ecological variables are expected because culture is a source of adaptive behavior, which enables animals to learn about and exploit environmental resources.
Insect cuticular proteins appear to be a source of adaptive evolution within genera and, at higher taxonomic levels, subject to periods of gene-family expansion and contraction followed by quiescence.
Recently, Galloway [ 22] and Galloway and Etterson [ 23] proposed that environmental adaptive parental effects could have evolved as a source of adaptive plasticity between generations.
Genome replacement and ploidy elevation is especially important for sperm-dependent unisexuals to incorporate additional genetic material by transmission of genomes or genes from a sexual host therefore providing a source of adaptive flexibility [ 17, 34].
This new and easy technique allows the fast and inexpensive generation of data necessary for studying the role of epigenetics as a source of adaptive variation in natural populations as well as crop plants.
Genetic variation from other species can be a source of adaptive variation to respond to environmental changes as with standing variation and new mutation [ 45], and genes provided by introgression can be a crucial source of variation to respond to selection [ 46– 46].
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A mobile DNA insertion in D. simulans was suggested as a possible source of adaptive change [37] and new hypotheses were proposed regarding the mechanisms controlling polymorphisms [38].
Indeed, a recent genome-wide screen for TE-induced adaptations in D. melanogaster showed that TEs are a considerable source of adaptive mutations [ 15].
These two experiments, together with adaptive CNVs in humans [32], indicate that copy number variation is a prolific source of adaptive polymorphism in natural populations.
Though recent work has focused on distinguishing amino acid changes from regulatory changes as the major determinants of human evolution [55], we have shown here that the similarity in total gene number between humans and our closest relatives has masked the gain and loss of genes as a fertile source of adaptive change.
It has been shown that TEs are a considerable source of adaptive changes in the genome of Drosophila melanogaster.
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