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The design of the study during the first phase is transversal; as a result, causality relations cannot be derived, that is, only the associations among the analysed variables can be performed.
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However, these associations may have non-causal explanations as a result of reverse causality (i.e., CRP levels may be altered as a result of atherosclerosis rather than being a cause of it) or confounding (the association of CRP with atherosclerosis may arise from the common association of the two with other causative factors).
A few lines later he explains why: "We are pattern seekers, believers in a coherent world, in which regularities … appear not by accident but as a result of mechanical causality or of someone's intention".
At least some of the findings may therefore be a result of reversed causality with health influencing income [ 32].
Instead, it has been suggested that the associations between cervical manipulation and cerebrovascular lesions seen in one study, is likely to be a result of reversed causality [ 9].
The observation that the level of restriction of sedentary pastimes is negatively associated with after-school physical activity seems counterintuitive but may be a result of reverse causality.
Again, this could be as a result of reverse causality where HCWs with latex sensitisation may have been relocated to wards with low glove consumption to minimise the exposure.
The row labeled WP indicates that it used word pairs alone as features, providing a baseline result for causality detection.
As a result, about 2.8 million causalities due to earthquakes can be expected worldwide by 2100 (Holzer and Savage 2013).
However, we concede that some men may have had incipient dementia at the time of recruitment that only became clinically apparent after 2 years, and as a result the possibility of reverse causality cannot be dismissed entirely.
The walking variables 'walk regularly in same place'walkalk in a group', and 'notice same people and dogs on a walk' were not used within the model building as it was deemed likely that these strong reported associations were, at least in part, due to reverse causality (as a result of walking regularly).
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com