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CRF represent the probabilities for responding to each of the five response categories as a function of respondents' level of latent trait (Hambleton, 2005), as, for example, negative and/or positive affect.
In this section, we empirically analyze the individual-level propensity to support the Senate plan on illegal immigration as a function of respondents' characteristics.
Differences between self-reports of chronic conditions and physical measures may be a function of respondents who are not aware of their presence, which become evident when physical measures are taken.
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Missing data were analysed as a function of respondent characteristics to determine whether there was any response bias according to participant characteristics.
In HRQoL research, similar analyses may be used to assess whether there are differences in response to a particular subscale item as a function of respondent characteristics such as age group, gender, education or treatment, given the same level of HRQoL.
To offer one of the possible explanations (not empirically verifiable in the present study) of such a finding, perhaps this result was a function of all respondents being somewhat "Americanized".
IRT is a set of models that describes the probability of responding to an item response category as a function of the respondent's level on the trait being assessed (θ, theta) and characteristics of the item, for example, item difficulty or discrimination.
The family of IRT models share the assumption that the probability of a respondent endorsing any particular item is considered to be a function of the respondent's level on the underlying latent variable that is measured and the characteristics of the item [ 24].
The basis was a tensor-product spline ensuring flexibility when modeling the average number of contacts as a function of the respondent's and contact's age.
The error terms are therefore no longer IID distributed, and a typical approach is to express the scale parameter as a function of a vector of respondents' characteristics (Z).
Over or under reporting of health risk behaviors is in part a function of the desire of respondents to please interviewers, regardless of whether responses were collected by phone or in personal interviews.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com