In tropical regions, the incidence of the bovine tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus deeply affects cattle production systems leading to a decrease in production and reproduction traits and even death of highly susceptible animals.
A decrease in asexual reproduction capacity associated with a decrease or even a loss of sexual reproduction capacity in vitro has also been observed in Cryptococcus neoformans [ 49].
Further studies describe lethal (e.g., [27]) as well as sublethal ecotoxicological effects on invertebrates such as decrease in motion activity, abnormal swimming behavior, and a reduced release of feces, which may have been caused by disruption of the digestive process, reduction of growth, and a decrease in the reproduction rate [24, 27, 28].
A significant decrease in reproduction was observed (Fig. 4) with an increase in dose of ZnO-NPs and strongly affected with a decrease in size of NPs.
Such viruses, infecting and replicating in pathogenic fungi, are causing a fungal debilitation which results in an overall decrease in reproduction rates and/or vegetative growth, and are, thus, beneficial to the host plant (Pearson et al. 2009).
In all scenarios, case-fatality rate was low during the first wave (Spring) due to a decrease in the effective reproduction number.
The second type of trade-off arises from responses that result in an advantage that is manifest later, such as the presence of predators inducing the young of the water flea to develop defensive armor in adulthood, the trade-off being a decrease in resources for reproduction.
As above, this is a simplified version of the Euler-Lotka equation for discrete time, where age-specific output is equal to one for all ages where a cell divides, and zero otherwise, and where a decrease in the rate of reproduction and an increase in intrinsic mortality with age are not included.
