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In Fig. 4, it is easy to see the lower competencies for the area on the right of the network, by their small size.
When comparing vocational and non-vocational qualifications at ISCED level 3 and 4 while adjusting for various background variables, we still find lower competencies for vocational qualifications in ten countries.
In contrast, in countries with a strong vocational upper secondary system, such as Germany and Finland, people who initially have a higher literacy competency follow more general tracks while people with lower competencies engage in vocationally oriented programs.
This interpretation might be supported by acknowledging that computers in German schools are still often used as an instrument to compensate learning needs and, thus, follow the objective of promoting students with lower competencies rather than all students (for more on this topic in the case of primary schools see, for example, Drossel and Eickelmann 2014).
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While more students are studying the language at university, they are leaving secondary school with lower competency than in the past, he says.
However, we find that family CEOs reduce firm value, indicating higher potential expropriation of minority shareholders or possible lower competency of family CEOs relative to professionals.
On average, female participants exhibited a lower competency level than male participants by 0.4 logits.
Previous studies have indicated that there may be some relationship between gender and competency (university women report lower competency; Donovan and Maclntyre 2004).
Maehler et al. (2013) report competency by detailed education categories for Germany, finding that on average, individuals with vocational tertiary education achieve lower competency levels than individuals with general upper secondary education, contradicting the general finding of higher competencies at higher education levels found using broad education categories.
Nevertheless, there were concerns related to programmatic issues such as 25 75% scenario, absence of curative services and lower competency and skill of the HEWs.
Midwives pointed out HEWs' lower competency in identifying high-risk pregnant women for referral, incomplete history taking and referring women without a referral slip.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com