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In rats, both these procedures are known to increase sympathetic activation of interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) thermogenesis, important for heat production in the rat.
PACAP is well known as a master regulator of the stress response, acting with the CNS and peripheral nervous system to increase sympathetic activity (reviewed in [46, 68, 119, 149]).
Similarly, Carmignani et al. [27] reported that lead appears to increase sympathetic nerve activity by central mechanisms.
On the other hand, part of the apparent discrepancy between increased oxygen consumption and reduced locomoter activity following ICV leptin, may be due to the ability of central leptin to increase sympathetic outflow to brown adipose tissue, thereby increasing thermogenesis [14].
BDNF can potentially increase sympathetic activation and energy expenditure in diabetic mice [ 27, 28].
Furthermore, FM women undertaking a tilt test displayed an inability to increase sympathetic discharge and decrease vagal activity.
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These studies suggest that increased sympathetic outflow contributes to development and maintenance of CIH13,14.
Pregnancy is associated with an increased sympathetic state, which can be exacerbated by gestational conditions.
As well as increasing sympathetic tone to BAT and ScW, chronic cold exposure also triggers sympathetic innervation7.
Cold-induced increased sympathetic innervation involves nerve fiber branching and extension of preexisting neurons in BAT and ScW7.
Roy et al. showed that activation of parvocellular pre-autonomic oxytocin neurons increased sympathetic nerve activity following myocardial infarction.
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