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Paul Michelman: So in the introduction we define shirking as you did in the paper: when an employee exerts effort that is suboptimal in the eyes of the employer.
According to Richard Paulsen, who presented his paper, "New Evidence in the Study of Shirking in Major League Baseball," at the recent Sloan Sports Analytics Conference, shirking occurs when an employee exerts effort that is suboptimal in the eyes of the employer.
For example, in predator prey systems, the predator exerts effort to capture the prey; in turn, the prey strives to escape from the predator's hunt.
A Muslim exerts effort in daily life activities -- such as pursuing an education or a career -- to do and achieve good for the personal process of self-improvement so as to achieve internal peace and closeness with Allah.
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Such a system introduces academic incentives to exert effort, but also to inflate GPA.
Continuing to exert effort while stressed and fatigued will simply tax us and lead to depletion and impaired performance.
Task clarity is the degree to which there is a clear and positive relationship between exerting effort and attaining results.
Cognitive framing influences the subjective valuation of monetary payoffs and an individual's willingness to exert effort and take risk.
Crowdsourcing contests can be modeled as all-pay auctions because entrants must exert effort up-front to enter.
Employees who observed customers felt that their work was more appreciated and more impactful, and thus were more satisfied with their work and more willing to exert effort.
When and why does empathy break down, and what predicts whether people will exert effort to experience empathy in challenging contexts?
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com