"There is also the view that when white investigators commit an infraction, measures are taken by management to cover up the infraction ('make it go away') or impose a less severe sanction," Mr. Andrews wrote.
We analyzed data for 220 665 pedestrians involved in road crashes recorded in the Spanish registry of road crashes with victims from 1993 to 2011, and a subset of 39 743 pedestrians involved in clean collisions (in which the pedestrian did not commit an infraction).
The university did not report the name of any staff member who committed an infraction or the sport involved.
The judges found that the first stop was justified because Ms. Cruise-Gulyas had committed an infraction.
Data were analyzed for 50,042 cyclists involved in road crashes in Spain from 1993 to 2011, and also for a subset of 13,119 non-infractor cyclists involved in collisions with a vehicle whose driver committed an infraction (used as a proxy sample of all cyclists on the road).
Mr. Singleton, who prison officials acknowledge has never committed an infraction behind bars, has filed for a conditional pardon with Gov. Terry McAuliffe, saying in part that his court-appointed lawyer failed to adequately represent him.
On Nov. 10, 2017, Butler was sent to segregation — individual cells most commonly used after an person has been accused of committing an infraction — after she threw coffee on another inmate during a dispute.
In a series of recent studies, a team of researchers led by Peter H. Kim of the University of Southern California and Donald L. Ferrin of the University of Buffalo, now at Singapore Management University, had groups of business students rate the trustworthiness of a job applicant after learning that the person had committed an infraction at a previous job.
The executions moved in waves, and once a neighborhood had been purged it could then expect a measure of respite, until someone committed an infraction of some kind, because infractions, although often alleged with a degree of randomness, were invariably punished without mercy.
The "On Notice" feature tells them that they have committed an "infraction" and are in a suspension period.
It is important to emphasize that the way we assigned responsibility was not deterministic, but probabilistic: in a collision between a pedestrian who had not committed an infraction and a vehicle whose driver had just committed an infraction, the driver was much more likely to be at fault for the collision than the pedestrian.
